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= ARPANET =
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Introduction
======================================================================
The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the first
wide-area packet-switched network with distributed control and one of
the first computer networks to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Both technologies became the technical foundation of the Internet. The
ARPANET was established by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (now
DARPA) of the United States Department of Defense.
Building on the ideas of J. C. R. Licklider, Bob Taylor initiated the
ARPANET project in 1966 to enable resource sharing between remote
computers. Taylor appointed Larry Roberts as program manager. Roberts
made the key decisions about the request for proposal to build the
network. He incorporated Donald Davies' concepts and designs for
packet switching, and sought input from Paul Baran. In 1969, ARPA
awarded the contract to build the Interface Message Processors (IMPs)
for the network to Bolt Beranek & Newman (BBN). The design was led
by Bob Kahn who developed the first protocol for the network. Roberts
engaged Leonard Kleinrock at UCLA to develop mathematical methods for
analyzing the packet network technology.
The first computers were connected in 1969 and the Network Control
Program was implemented in 1970, development of which was led by Steve
Crocker at UCLA and other graduate students, including Jon Postel. The
network was declared operational in 1971. Further software development
enabled remote login and file transfer, which was used to provide an
early form of email. The network expanded rapidly and operational
control passed to the Defense Communications Agency in 1975.
Bob Kahn moved to DARPA and, together with Vint Cerf at Stanford
University, formulated the Transmission Control Program for
internetworking. As this work progressed, a protocol was developed by
which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of
networks; this incorporated concepts pioneered in the French CYCLADES
project directed by Louis Pouzin and the ideas of Bob Metcalfe at
Xerox Parc. Version 4 of TCP/IP was installed in the ARPANET for
production use on 1 January 1983, after the Department of Defense made
it standard for all military computer networking.
Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science
Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In the
early 1980s, the NSF funded the establishment of national
supercomputing centers at several universities and provided network
access and network interconnectivity with the NSFNET project in 1986.
The ARPANET was formally decommissioned in 1990, after partnerships
with the telecommunication and computer industry had assured private
sector expansion and commercialization of an expanded worldwide
network, known as the Internet.
Inspiration
======================================================================
Historically, voice and data communications were based on methods of
circuit switching, as exemplified in the traditional telephone
network, wherein each telephone call is allocated a dedicated
end-to-end electronic connection between the two communicating
stations. The connection is established by switching systems that
connected multiple intermediate call legs between these systems for
the duration of the call.
The traditional model of the circuit-switched telecommunication
network was challenged in the early 1960s by Paul Baran at the RAND
Corporation, who had been researching systems that could sustain
operation during partial destruction, such as by nuclear war. He
developed the theoretical model of 'distributed adaptive message block
switching'. However, the telecommunication establishment rejected the
development in favor of existing models. Donald Davies at the United
Kingdom's National Physical Laboratory (NPL) independently arrived at
a similar concept in 1965.
The earliest ideas for a computer network intended to allow general
communications among computer users were formulated by computer
scientist J. C. R. Licklider of Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN), in
April 1963, in memoranda discussing the concept of the "Intergalactic
Computer Network". Those ideas encompassed many of the features of the
contemporary Internet. In October 1963, Licklider was appointed head
of the Behavioral Sciences and Command and Control programs at the
Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). He
convinced Ivan Sutherland and Bob Taylor that this network concept was
very important and merited development, although Licklider left ARPA
before any contracts were assigned for development.
Sutherland and Taylor continued their interest in creating the
network, in part, to allow ARPA-sponsored researchers at various
corporate and academic locales to utilize computers provided by ARPA,
and, in part, to quickly distribute new software and other computer
science results. Taylor had three computer terminals in his office,
each connected to separate computers, which ARPA was funding: one for
the System Development Corporation (SDC) Q-32 in Santa Monica, one for
Project Genie at the University of California, Berkeley, and another
for Multics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Taylor
recalls the circumstance: "For each of these three terminals, I had
three different sets of user commands. So, if I was talking online
with someone at S.D.C., and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at
Berkeley, or M.I.T., about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C.
terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch
with them. I said, 'Oh Man!', it's obvious what to do: If you have
these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes
anywhere you want to go. That idea is the ARPANET".
Donald Davies' work caught the attention of ARPANET developers at the
Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in October 1967. He gave the
first public presentation, having coined the term 'packet switching',
in August 1968 and incorporated it into the NPL network in England.
The NPL network, followed by the ARPANET, were the first two networks
in the world to implement packet switching. Roberts said the computer
networks built in the 1970s were similar "in nearly all respects" to
Davies' original 1965 design.
Creation
======================================================================
In February 1966, Bob Taylor successfully lobbied ARPA's Director
Charles M. Herzfeld to fund a network project. Herzfeld redirected
funds in the amount of one million dollars from a ballistic missile
defense program to Taylor's budget. Taylor hired Larry Roberts as a
program manager in the ARPA Information Processing Techniques Office
in January 1967 to work on the ARPANET. Roberts met Paul Baran in
February 1967, but did not discuss networks.
Roberts asked Frank Westervelt to explore the questions of message
size and contents for the network, and to write a position paper on
the intercomputer communication protocol including "conventions for
character and block transmission, error checking and re-transmission,
and computer and user identification." In April 1967, ARPA held a
design session on technical standards. The initial standards for
identification and authentication of users, transmission of
characters, and error checking and retransmission procedures were
discussed. Roberts' proposal was that all mainframe computers would
connect to one another directly. The other investigators were
reluctant to dedicate these computing resources to network
administration. After the design session, Wesley Clark proposed
minicomputers should be used as an interface to create a message
switching network. Roberts modified the ARPANET plan to incorporate
Clark's suggestion and named the minicomputers Interface Message
Processors (IMPs).
The plan was presented at the inaugural Symposium on Operating Systems
Principles in October 1967. Donald Davies' work on packet switching
and the NPL network, presented by a colleague (Roger Scantlebury), and
that of Paul Baran, came to the attention of the ARPA investigators at
this conference. Roberts applied Davies' concept of packet switching
for the ARPANET, and sought input from Paul Baran on dynamic routing.
The NPL network was using line speeds of 768 kbit/s, and the proposed
line speed for the ARPANET was upgraded from 2.4 kbit/s to 50 kbit/s.
By mid-1968, Roberts and Barry Wessler wrote a final version of the
IMP specification based on a Stanford Research Institute (SRI) report
that ARPA commissioned to write detailed specifications describing the
ARPANET communications network. Roberts gave a report to Taylor on 3
June, who approved it on 21 June. After approval by ARPA, a Request
for Quotation (RFQ) was issued for 140 potential bidders. Most
computer science companies regarded the ARPA proposal as outlandish,
and only twelve submitted bids to build a network; of the twelve, ARPA
regarded only four as top-rank contractors. At year's end, ARPA
considered only two contractors and awarded the contract to build the
network to BBN in January 1969.
The initial, seven-person BBN team were much aided by the technical
specificity of their response to the ARPA RFQ, and thus quickly
produced the first working system. The "IMP guys" were led by Frank
Heart; the theoretical design of the network was led by Bob Kahn; the
team included Dave Walden, Severo Ornstein, William Crowther and
several others. The BBN-proposed network closely followed Roberts'
ARPA plan: a network composed of small computers, the IMPs (similar to
the later concept of routers), that functioned as gateways
interconnecting local resources. Routing, flow control, software
design and network control were developed by the BBN team. At each
site, the IMPs performed store-and-forward packet switching functions
and were interconnected with leased lines via telecommunication data
sets (modems), with initial data rates of . The host computers were
connected to the IMPs via custom serial communication interfaces. The
system, including the hardware and the packet switching software, was
designed and installed in nine months. The BBN team continued to
interact with the NPL team with meetings between them taking place in
the U.S. and the U.K.
As with the NPL network, the first-generation IMPs were built using a
rugged computer version of the Honeywell DDP-516 computer, configured
with of expandable magnetic-core memory, and a 16-channel Direct
Multiplex Control (DMC) direct memory access unit. The DMC established
custom interfaces with each of the host computers and modems. In
addition to the front-panel lamps, the DDP-516 computer also features
a special set of 24 indicator lamps showing the status of the IMP
communication channels. Each IMP could support up to four local hosts
and could communicate with up to six remote IMPs via early Digital
Signal 0 leased telephone lines. The network connected one computer in
Utah with three in California. Later, the Department of Defense
allowed the universities to join the network for sharing hardware and
software resources.
Implementation
======================================================================
The first four nodes were designated as a testbed for developing and
debugging the 1822 protocol, which was a major undertaking. While they
were connected electronically in 1969, network applications were not
possible until the Network Control Program was implemented in 1970,
enabling the first two host-host protocols, remote login (Telnet) and
file transfer (FTP) which were specified and implemented between 1969
and 1973. The network was declared operational in 1971. Network
traffic began to grow once email was established at the majority of
sites by around 1973.
Initial four hosts
====================
The initial ARPANET configuration linked UCLA, ARC, UCSB, and the
University of Utah School of Computing. The first node was created at
UCLA, where Leonard Kleinrock could evaluate network performance and
examine his theories on message delay. The locations were selected not
only to reduce leased line costs but also because each had specific
expertise beneficial for this initial implementation phase:
* University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where Kleinrock had
established a Network Measurement Center (NMC), with an SDS Sigma 7
being the first computer attached to it;
* The Augmentation Research Center at Stanford Research Institute (now
SRI International), where Douglas Engelbart had created the new NLS
system, an early hypertext system, and would run the Network
Information Center (NIC), with the SDS 940 that ran NLS, named
"Genie", being the first host attached;
* University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), with the
Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center's IBM 360/75, running
OS/MVT being the machine attached;
* The University of Utah School of Computing, where Ivan Sutherland
had moved, running a DEC PDP-10 operating on TENEX.
The first successful host-to-host connection on the ARPANET was made
between Stanford Research Institute (SRI) and UCLA, by SRI programmer
Bill Duvall and UCLA student programmer Charley Kline, at 10:30 pm PST
on 29 October 1969 (6:30 UTC on 30 October 1969). Kline connected from
UCLA's SDS Sigma 7 Host computer (in Boelter Hall room 3420) to the
Stanford Research Institute's SDS 940 Host computer. Kline typed the
command "login," but initially the SDS 940 crashed after he typed two
characters. About an hour later, after Duvall adjusted parameters on
the machine, Kline tried again and successfully logged in. Hence, the
first two characters successfully transmitted over the ARPANET were
"lo". The first permanent ARPANET link was established on 21 November
1969, between the IMP at UCLA and the IMP at the Stanford Research
Institute. By 5 December 1969, the initial four-node network was
established.
Elizabeth Feinler created the first Resource Handbook for ARPANET in
1969, which led to the development of the ARPANET directory. The
directory, built by Feinler and a team made it possible to navigate
the ARPANET.
Network performance
=====================
In 1968, Roberts contracted with Kleinrock to measure the performance
of the network and find areas for improvement. Building on his earlier
work on queueing theory and optimization of message delay in
communication networks, Kleinrock specified mathematical models of the
performance of packet-switched networks, which underpinned the
development of the ARPANET as it expanded rapidly in the early 1970s.
Analytic methods had limitations, and computer simulation studies were
also employed by ARPA, and at the NPL in the United Kingdom.
Growth and evolution
======================
Roberts engaged Howard Frank to consult on the topological design of
the network. Frank made recommendations to increase throughput and
reduce costs in a scaled-up network. By March 1970, the ARPANET
reached the East Coast of the United States, when an IMP at BBN in
Cambridge, Massachusetts was connected to the network. Thereafter, the
ARPANET grew: 9 IMPs by June 1970 and 13 IMPs by December 1970, then
18 by September 1971 (when the network included 23 university and
government hosts); 29 IMPs by August 1972, and 40 by September 1973.
By June 1974, there were 46 IMPs, and in July 1975, the network
numbered 57 IMPs. By 1981, the number was 213 host computers, with
another host connecting approximately every twenty days.
Support for inter-IMP circuits of up to 230.4 kbit/s was added in
1970, although considerations of cost and IMP processing power meant
this capability was not actively used.
Larry Roberts saw the ARPANET and NPL projects as complementary and
sought in 1970 to connect them via a satellite link. Peter Kirstein's
research group at University College London (UCL) was subsequently
chosen in 1971 in place of NPL for the UK connection. In June 1973, a
transatlantic satellite link connected ARPANET to the Norwegian
Seismic Array (NORSAR), via the Tanum Earth Station in Sweden, and
onward via a terrestrial circuit to a TIP at UCL. UCL provided a
gateway for interconnection of the ARPANET with British academic
networks, the first international resource sharing network, and
carried out some of the earliest experimental research work on
internetworking.
1971 saw the start of the use of the non-ruggedized (and therefore
significantly lighter) Honeywell 316 as an IMP. It could also be
configured as a Terminal Interface Processor (TIP), which provided
terminal server support for up to 63 ASCII serial terminals through a
multi-line controller in place of one of the hosts. The 316 featured a
greater degree of integration than the 516, which made it less
expensive and easier to maintain. The 316 was configured with 40 kB of
core memory for a TIP. The size of core memory was later increased to
32 kB for the IMPs, and 56 kB for TIPs, in 1973.
The ARPANET was demonstrated at the International Conference on
Computer Communications (ICCC) in October 1972.
In 1975, BBN introduced IMP software running on the Pluribus
multi-processor. These appeared in a few sites. In 1981, BBN
introduced IMP software running on its own C/30 processor product.
IMP functionality
===================
Because it was never a goal for the ARPANET to support IMPs from
vendors other than BBN, the IMP-to-IMP protocol and message format
were not standardized. However, the IMPs did nonetheless communicate
amongst themselves to perform link-state routing, to do reliable
forwarding of messages, and to provide remote monitoring and
management functions to ARPANET's Network Control Center. Initially,
each IMP had a 6-bit identifier and supported up to 4 hosts, which
were identified with a 2-bit index. An ARPANET host address,
therefore, consisted of both the port index on its IMP and the
identifier of the IMP, which was written with either port/IMP notation
or as a single byte; for example, the address of MIT-DMG (notable for
hosting development of Zork) could be written as either 1/6 or 70. An
upgrade in early 1976 extended the host and IMP numbering to 8-bit and
16-bit, respectively.
In addition to primary routing and forwarding responsibilities, the
IMP ran several background programs, titled TTY, DEBUG,
PARAMETER-CHANGE, DISCARD, TRACE, and STATISTICS. These were given
host numbers in order to be addressed directly and provided functions
independently of any connected host. For example, "TTY" allowed an
on-site operator to send ARPANET packets manually via the teletype
connected directly to the IMP.
1822 protocol
===============
The starting point for host-to-host communication on the ARPANET in
1969 was the 1822 protocol, which defined the transmission of messages
to an IMP. The message format was designed to work unambiguously with
a broad range of computer architectures. An 1822 message essentially
consisted of a message type, a numeric host address, and a data field.
To send a data message to another host, the transmitting host
formatted a data message containing the destination host's address and
the data message being sent, and then transmitted the message through
the 1822 hardware interface. The IMP then delivered the message to its
destination address, either by delivering it to a locally connected
host or by delivering it to another IMP. When the message was
ultimately delivered to the destination host, the receiving IMP would
transmit a 'Ready for Next Message' (RFNM) acknowledgment to the
sending, host IMP.
Network Control Program
=========================
Unlike modern Internet datagrams, the ARPANET was designed to reliably
transmit 1822 messages, and to inform the host computer when it loses
a message; the contemporary IP is unreliable, whereas the TCP is
reliable. Nonetheless, the 1822 protocol proved inadequate for
handling multiple connections among different applications residing in
a host computer. This problem was addressed with the Network Control
Program (NCP), which provided a standard method to establish reliable,
flow-controlled, bidirectional communications links among different
processes in different host computers. The NCP interface allowed
application software to connect across the ARPANET by implementing
higher-level communication protocols, an early example of the
'protocol layering' concept later incorporated in the OSI model.
NCP was developed under the leadership of Steve Crocker, then a
graduate student at UCLA. Crocker created and led the Network Working
Group (NWG) which was made up of a collection of graduate students at
universities and research laboratories, including Jon Postel at UCLA.
They were sponsored by ARPA to carry out the development of the
ARPANET and the software for the host computers that supported
applications.
TCP/IP
========
Beginning in 1972, Louis Pouzin and Hubert Zimmermann at the IRIA in
France pioneered a simplified end-to-end approach to networking that
they called a catenet, which was discussed at the ICCC. Bob Kahn left
BBN in 1972, briefly to be President of Telenet, and then moved to
DARPA, first as program manager for the ARPANET, under Larry Roberts,
then as director of the IPTO when Roberts left to be President of
Telenet. Kahn worked on both satellite packet networks and
ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being
able to communicate across both. Steve Crocker, now at DARPA, and the
leaders of British and French network projects founded the
International Network Working Group (INWG) and, on Crocker's
recommendation, Vint Cerf, now on the faculty at Stanford University,
became its Chair. Bob Metcalfe developed the theory and practice
behind Ethernet and the PARC Universal Packet. These groups considered
how to interconnect packet switching networks with different
specifications, that is, internetworking. Peter Kirstein put
internetworking into practice at University College London in 1973.
Research led by Kahn and Cerf resulted in the formulation of the
Transmission Control Program in 1974. Its specification was written by
Cerf with Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine at Stanford in December that
year (), and a group of researchers began publishing Internet
Experiment Notes (IENs). The following year, testing began through
concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN and University College
London. At first a monolithic design, the software was redesigned as a
modular protocol stack in Version 4 in 1978, which reflected concepts
from the French CYCLADES project directed by Pouzin and the ideas of
Bob Metcalfe at Xerox Parc. This was installed in the ARPANET for
production use in January 1983, replacing NCP. The development of the
complete Internet protocol suite by 1989, as outlined in and , and
partnerships with the telecommunication and computer industry laid the
foundation for the adoption of TCP/IP as a comprehensive protocol
suite as the core component of the emerging Internet.
Operation
======================================================================
ARPA was intended to fund advanced research. The ARPANET was a
research project that was communications-oriented, rather than
user-oriented in design. Nonetheless, in the summer of 1975,
operational control of the ARPANET passed to the Defense
Communications Agency. At about this time, the first ARPANET
encryption devices were deployed to support classified traffic. The
'ARPANET Completion Report', written in 1978 and published in 1981
jointly by BBN and DARPA, concludes that:
Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science
Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET).
The transatlantic connectivity with Norway (NORSAR and NDRE) and
University College London (UCL) later evolved into the SATNET. The
ARPANET, SATNET and PRNET were interconnected in 1977. The DoD made
TCP/IP the standard communication protocol for all military computer
networking in 1980. Norway and UCL left the ARPANET and began using
TCP/IP over SATNET in 1982. On 1 January 1983, known as flag day,
TCP/IP protocols became the standard for the ARPANET, replacing the
earlier Network Control Protocol.
In September 1984, work was completed on restructuring the ARPANET,
giving U.S. military sites their own Military Network (MILNET) for
unclassified defense department communications. Both networks carried
unclassified information and were connected at a small number of
controlled gateways which would allow total separation in the event of
an emergency. MILNET was part of the Defense Data Network (DDN).
Separating the civil and military networks reduced the 113-node
ARPANET by 68 nodes. After MILNET was split away, the ARPANET would
continue to be used as an Internet backbone for researchers, but be
slowly phased out.
Applications
======================================================================
NCP provided a standard set of network services that could be shared
by several applications running on a single host computer. This led to
the evolution of 'application protocols' that operated, more or less,
independently of the underlying network service, and permitted
independent advances in the underlying protocols.
The various application protocols, such as TELNET for remote
time-sharing access and File Transfer Protocol (FTP), the latter used
to enable rudimentary electronic mail, were developed and eventually
ported to run over the TCP/IP protocol suite. In the 1980s, FTP for
email was replaced by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and, later,
POP and IMAP.
Telnet was developed in 1969, beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC
855.
The original specification for the File Transfer Protocol was written
by Abhay Bhushan and published as on 16 April 1971. By 1973, the File
Transfer Protocol (FTP) specification had been defined () and
implemented, enabling file transfers over the ARPANET.
In 1971, Ray Tomlinson, of BBN sent the first network e-mail (, ). An
ARPA study in 1973, a year after network e-mail was introduced to the
ARPANET community, found that three-quarters of the traffic over the
ARPANET consisted of email messages. E-mail remained a very large part
of the overall ARPANET traffic.
The Network Voice Protocol (NVP) specifications were defined in 1977
(), and implemented. But, because of technical shortcomings,
conference calls over the ARPANET never worked well; the contemporary
Voice over Internet Protocol (packet voice) was decades away.
Security
======================================================================
The Purdy Polynomial hash algorithm was developed for the ARPANET to
protect passwords in 1971 at the request of Larry Roberts, head of
ARPA at that time. It computed a polynomial of degree 224 + 17 modulo
the 64-bit prime 'p' = 264 − 59. The algorithm was later used by
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) to hash passwords in the VMS
operating system and is still being used for this purpose.
Rules and etiquette
======================================================================
Because of its government funding, certain forms of traffic were
discouraged or prohibited.
Leonard Kleinrock claims to have committed the first illegal act on
the Internet, having sent a request for return of his electric razor
after a meeting in England in 1973. At the time, use of the ARPANET
for personal reasons was unlawful.
In 1978, against the rules of the network, Gary Thuerk of Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC) sent out the first mass email to
approximately 400 potential clients via the ARPANET. He claims that
this resulted in $13 million worth of sales in DEC products, and
highlighted the potential of email marketing.
A 1982 handbook on computing at MIT's AI Lab stated regarding network
etiquette:
Decommissioning
======================================================================
In 1985, the NSF funded the establishment of national supercomputing
centers at several universities and provided network access and
network interconnectivity with the NSFNET project in 1986. NSFNET
became the Internet backbone for government agencies and universities.
The ARPANET project was formally decommissioned in 1990. The original
IMPs and TIPs were phased out as the ARPANET was shut down after the
introduction of the NSFNet, but some IMPs remained in service as late
as July 1990.
In the wake of the decommissioning of the ARPANET on 28 February 1990,
Vinton Cerf wrote the following lamentation, entitled "Requiem of the
ARPANET":
Legacy
======================================================================
The technological advancements and practical applications achieved
through the ARPANET were instrumental in shaping modern computer
networking, including the Internet. Development and implementation of
the concepts of packet switching, decentralized networks, and
communication protocols laid the foundation for a global network that
revolutionized communication, information sharing and collaborative
research across the world.
The ARPANET was related to many other research projects, which either
influenced the ARPANET design, were ancillary projects, or spun out of
the ARPANET.
Senator Al Gore authored the High Performance Computing and
Communication Act of 1991, commonly referred to as "The Gore Bill",
after hearing the 1988 concept for a National Research Network
submitted to Congress by a group chaired by Leonard Kleinrock. The
bill was passed on 9 December 1991 and led to the National Information
Infrastructure (NII), which Gore called the 'information
superhighway'.
The ARPANET project was honored with two IEEE Milestones, both
dedicated in 2009.
On 17 May 2011, Arlington County, Virginia, erected two historical
markers commemorating the internet's roots at 1400 Wilson Boulevard,
in its Rosslyn neighborhood, the agency's home from 1970 to 1975.
Debate about design goals
===========================
According to Charles Herzfeld, ARPA Director (1965-1967):
The ARPANET used distributed computation and incorporated frequent
re-computation of routing tables (automatic routing was technically
challenging at the time). These features increased the survivability
of the network in the event of a significant interruption.
Furthermore, the ARPANET was designed to survive subordinate network
losses. However, the Internet Society agrees with Herzfeld in a
footnote in their online article, 'A Brief History of the Internet':
Paul Baran, the first to put forward a theoretical model for
communication using packet switching, conducted the RAND study
referenced above. Though the ARPANET did not exactly share Baran's
project's goal, he said his work did contribute to the development of
the ARPANET. Minutes taken by Elmer Shapiro of Stanford Research
Institute at the ARPANET design meeting of 9-10 October 1967 indicate
that a version of Baran's routing method ("hot potato") may be used,
consistent with the NPL team's proposal at the Symposium on Operating
System Principles in Gatlinburg.
Later, in the 1970s, ARPA did emphasize the goal of "command and
control". According to Stephen J. Lukasik, who was deputy director
(1967-1970) and Director of DARPA (1970-1975):
Further reading
======================================================================
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External links
======================================================================
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* Timeline.
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* Personal anecdote of the first message ever sent over the ARPANET
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* : includes conversations with multiple individuals who influenced
DARPA and early computer networks
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